3 page essay
The Police an introduction
n in
th ed
itio n
Samuel Walker | Charles M. Katz
in America
Ninth Edition
The Police in America
an introduction
Samuel Walker University of Nebraska at Omaha
Charles M. Katz Arizona State University
THE POLICE IN AMERICA: AN INTRODUCTION, NINTH EDITION
Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121. Copyright © 2018 by McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Previous editions © 2011, 2008, and 2005. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education, including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning.
Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the United States.
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 LCR 21 20 19 18
ISBN 978-1-259-14076-1 MHID 1-259-14076-8
Chief Product Officer, SVP Products & Markets: G. Scott Virkler Vice President, General Manager, Products & Markets: Michael Ryan Vice President, Content Design & Delivery: Betsy Whalen Managing Director: David Patterson Brand Manager: Jamie Laferera Market Development Manager: Meredith Leo Director, Content Design & Delivery: Terri Schiesl Program Manager: Deb Hash Content Project Managers: Rick Hecker and Katie Klochan Buyer: Sandy Ludovissey Design: Jessica Serd Content Licensing Specialist: Melisa Seegmiller Cover Image: (c) Erica Simone Leeds; © McGraw-Hill Education; © Getty Images; © Shutterstock Compositor: Aptara, Inc. Printer: LSC Communications
All credits appearing on page or at the end of the book are considered to be an extension of the copyright page.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Walker, Samuel, 1942- author. | Katz, Charles M., author. Title: The police in America : an introduction / Samuel Walker, University of Nebraska at Omaha, Charles M. Katz, Arizona State University. Description: Ninth Edition. | Dubuque, IA : McGraw-Hill Education, [2017] | Revised edition of the authors The police in America, c2013. Identifiers: LCCN 2016053271| ISBN 9781259140761 (alk. paper) | ISBN 1259140768 (alk. paper) Subjects: LCSH: Police–United States. | Police administration–United States. Classification: LCC HV8139 .W35 2017 | DDC 363.20973–dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016053271
The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a website does not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill Education, and McGraw-Hill Education does not guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at these sites.
mheducation.com/highered
iii
About the Authors
Samuel Walker Dr. Samuel Walker is Professor Emeritus at the University of Nebraska at Omaha, where he taught for 31 years before retiring in 2005. He is the author of 14 books on policing, criminal justice policy, and civil liberties. He continues to write and consult in the area of police accountability, with a special interest in police early intervention systems and federal litigation against police misconduct.
Charles Katz Dr. Charles Katz is the Watts Family Director of the Center for Violence Prevention and Community Safety and is a Professor in the School of Criminology and Criminal Justice at Arizona State University. Dr. Katz earned his Ph.D. in Criminal Justice from the University of Nebraska at Omaha in 1997. He is coauthor of Policing Gangs in America (published by Cambridge University Press) and numerous articles on policing and gangs. He is currently working with several large metropolitan police agencies evaluating programs and practices.
iv
Contents in Brief
Preface XVI
P A R T I Foundations 1 1 Police and Society 2 2 The History of the American Police 28 3 The Contemporary Law Enforcement Industry 70
P A R T II Officers and Organizations 101 4 Police Organizations 102 5 Police Officers I: Recruitment and Training for
a Changing Society 130
6 Police Officers II: On the Job 166
P A R T III Police Work 211 7 Patrol: The Backbone of Policing 212 8 Peacekeeping and Order Maintenance 250 9 The Police and Crime 282 10 Advances in Police Strategy 324
P A R T IV Issues in Policing 367 11 Police Discretion 368 12 Legitimacy and PoliceCommunity Relations 404 13 Police Corruption 454 14 Accountability of the Police 488
P A R T V Challenges for a New Century 543 15 The Future of Policing in America 544
Glossary 569 | Name Index 581 | Subject Index 584
Contents
Preface XVI
P A R T I Foundations 1 C H A P T E R 1
Police and Society 2
The Goals of This Book 3
Why Do We Have Police? 3
A Framework for Understanding the Police and Policing 4 A Democratic Police 5
Democracy and Accountability 5
A Legitimate Police 6 Procedural Justice 7
Practices That Build Legitimacy 8
Legitimacy and PolicePublic Interactions 8
Legitimacy, Trust, and Race Relations 9
An Open and Transparent Police 10 Practices That Create Openness and
Transparency 11
An Accountable Police 12 Police Accountability: Goals and Methods 12
Accountability on Police Use of Force 12
Collecting and Analyzing Data on Use of Force 14
Accountability in Routine PolicePublic Contacts 15
Training to Prevent Bias in Police Activities 15
Independent Investigations and Review of Critical Incidents 16
An Effective Police 17 The Complex Responsibilities of the Police 17
Ineffective Strategies for Controlling Crime and Disorder 18
Effective Strategies for Controlling Crime and Disorder 21
Partnerships with the Public 21
A Special Case: The Police and the Mentally Ill 22
A Special Case: The Police and Juveniles 23
Research and Policing: Evidence-Based Programs 23
Summary 24
Key Terms 25
For Discussion 25
Internet Exercises 25
C H A P T E R 2 The History of the American Police 28
Flashback: Moments in American Police History 29 The First American Police Officer 29
Flash Forward: 1950 29
Why Study Police History? 29
The English Heritage 30 Creation of the Modern Police: London, 1829 31
Law Enforcement in Colonial America 32 The Quality of Colonial Law Enforcement 32
The First Modern American Police 33
The Political Era in American Policing, 1830s1900 34 A Lack of Personnel Standards 35
Patrol Work in the Political Era 35
The Police and the Public 36
Corruption and Politics 37
Immigration, Discrimination, and Police Corruption 38
The Failure of Police Reform 39
The Impact of the Police on Crime and Disorder 40
v
vi Contents
The Professional Era, 19001960 40 The Police Professionalization Movement 41
The Reform Agenda 41
The Achievements of Professionalization 42
Other Impacts of Professionalization 43
Police and Race Relations 44
New Law Enforcement Agencies 44
Technology Revolutionizes Policing 45
New Directions in Police Administration, 19301960 47 The Wickersham Commission Bombshell 47
Professionalization Continues 47
Simmering Racial and Ethnic Relations 48
J. Edgar Hoover and the War on Crime 48
The Police Crises of the 1960s 49 The Police and the Supreme Court 49
The Police and Civil Rights 51
The Police in the National Spotlight 52
The Research Revolution 53
New Developments in Policing, 19702016 55 The Changing Police Officer 55
Administrative Rulemaking and the Control of Police Discretion 56
The Emergence of Police Unions 57
The Spread of Citizen Oversight of Police 57
Community Policing, Problem-Oriented Policing, and Other Innovations 58
Data-Driven Policing 60
Racial Profiling and Discrimination 60
Federal Investigations of Police Misconduct 61
Local Police and the War on Terrorism 62
The National Police Crisis, 20142016 63
CASE STUDY: De-escalating PoliceCitizen Encounters 63
Summary 64
Key Terms 65
For Discussion 65
Internet Exercises 65
C H A P T E R 3 The Contemporary Law Enforcement Industry 70
Basic Features of American Law Enforcement 71 An Industry Perspective 71
An International Perspective 72
Size and Scope of the Law Enforcement Industry 73 The Number of Law Enforcement Agencies 73
The Number of Law Enforcement Personnel 74
Understanding Law Enforcement Personnel Data 74
Civilianization 75
The PolicePopulation Ratio 75
The Cost of Police Protection 75
The Fragmentation Issue 76 Alternatives to Fragmentation 77
The Fragmentation Problem Reconsidered 79
Municipal Police 80 County Police 80
The County Sheriff 81 The Role of the Sheriff 81
Other Local Agencies 82 The Constable 82
The Coroner/Medical Examiner 82
Special District Police 83
Tribal Police 83
State Law Enforcement Agencies 85
Federal Law Enforcement Agencies 86 Federal Law Enforcement after September 11,
2001 86
The Private Security Industry 90
Minimum Standards: American Style 93
The Role of the Federal Government 93
The Role of State Governments 93
Accreditation 94
CASE STUDY: The Fraser/Winter Park (CO) Police Department 94
Summary 96
Key Terms 96
For Discussion 96
Internet Exercises 96
Contents vii
C H A P T E R 4 Police Organizations 102
The Quasi-Military Style of Police Organizations 103 Criticisms of the Quasi-Military Style 103
Police Departments as Organizations 105 The Dominant Style of American Police
Organizations 105
Police Organizations as Bureaucracies 105
The Problems with Bureaucracy 108
The Positive Contributions of Bureaucracy in Policing 108
Informal Aspects of Police Organizations 108
Bureaucracy and Police Professionalism 110
Changing Police Organizations 110 Community Policing 110
Task Forces 112
COMPSTAT 113
Civil Service 115
Police Unions 116 Aspects of Police Unions 116
Collective Bargaining 117
Grievance Procedures 117
Impasse Settlement and Strikes 117
The Impact of Police Unions 120
Police Organizations and Their Environment 122
Contingency Theory 122
Institutional Theory 122
Resource Dependency Theory 123
CASE STUDY: COMPSTAT in Chicago 124
Summary 125
Key Terms 125
For Discussion 125
Internet Exercises 126
C H A P T E R 5 Police Officers I: Recruitment and Training for a Changing Society 130
The Changing American Police Officer 131
What Kind of Police Officer Do We Want? And for What Kind of Policing? 131
The Police Personnel Process 132
A Career Perspective 133
Beyond Stereotypes of Cops 133
The Personnel Process: A Shared Responsibility 134
Recruiting Police Officers 134
What Kind of Job? What Kind of Person? 135
Minimum Qualifications 135
The Recruitment Effort 139
Choosing Law Enforcement as a Career 139
Applicants Motivations 139
Obstacles to Recruitment 140
Testing and Selecting Applicants 141 Selection Tests 141
Background Investigations 142
Predicting Police Officer Performance 142
Achieving Diversity in Police Employment 143
The Goals of Diversity 143
The Law of Equal Employment Opportunity 144
Not Your Fathers Police Department: Diversity in Policing 144
Women in Policing 146
Employment Discrimination Suits 147
The Impact of Increased Diversity 149
Police Training: Progress and New Challenges 149 New Thinking about Policing and Training 150
The Police Academy 150
Training on the Use of Force 152
Tactical Decision-Making 153
Scenario-Based Training 153
Fragmented and Inconsistent Training 154
The Consequences of Inadequate Training 154
P A R T II Officers and Organizations 101
viii Contents
Training on Unconscious Bias 155
Training on Procedural Justice 155
Field Training 155
In-Service Training 156
Training of Supervisors 157
The Probationary Period 157
CASE STUDY: Improving Training for Domestic Violence Incidents: A Problem-Oriented Approach 158
Summary 159
Key Terms 159
For Discussion 160
Internet Exercises 160
C H A P T E R 6 Police Officers II: On the Job 166
Reality Shock: Beginning Police Work 168 Encountering Citizens 168
Encountering the Criminal Justice System 169
Encountering the Department 169
Starting Out on the Job 170
Impact of the Seniority System 170
The Concept of a Unique Police Subculture 172
The Original Concept 172
The Capacity to Use Force as a Defining Feature of Policing 174
The Dangers of Policing: Potential versus Actual 175
Conflicting Work Demands 177
New Perspectives on a Complex and Changing Police Subculture 178
The Changing Rank and File: The Impact of Diversity 179
The Impact of Women Police Officers on the Police Subculture 179
Women Officers on Patrol Duty 181
Female versus Male Officers: Differences in Misconduct Issues 181
Sexual Harassment on the Job 182
African American Officers 182
African American Officers on the Job 183
Hispanic Officers 183
Gay and Lesbian Officers 184
The Intersection of Gender, Race, Ethnicity, and Sexual Identity 185
Does Diversifying a Department Change the Police Subculture? 186
Rising Levels of Police Officer Education 186
Cohort Effects on Performance 187
Organizational Effects on Attitudes and Performance 187
Attitudes toward Community Policing 188
The Relationship between Attitudes and Behavior 189
Styles of Police Work 189
Moving through Police Careers 190
Salaries and Benefits 190
Career Development 191
Promotion 191
Assignment to Special Units 192
Lateral Entry 193
Outside Employment 193
Performance Evaluations 194
Traditional Performance Evaluations 194
Problems with Performance Evaluations 195
Job Satisfaction and Job Stress 196
The Sources of Job Satisfaction 196
The Sources of Job Stress 197
Job Stress and Suicide 198
Community Policing and Job Satisfaction 199
Coping with Job Stress 200
The Rights of Police Officers 200
Turnover: Leaving Police Work 202
Decertification 203
Summary 203
Key Terms 204
For Discussion 204
Internet Exercise 204
Contents ix
C H A P T E R 7 Patrol: The Backbone of Policing 212
The Central Role of Patrol 213
The Functions of Patrol 214
The Organization and Delivery of Patrol 214 Factors Affecting the Delivery of Patrol Services 214
Number of Sworn Officers 214
Assignment to Patrol 216
The Distribution of Patrol Officers 216
Assignment of Patrol Officers 218
Hot Spots 218
Types of Patrol 218
Foot Patrol 219
One-Officer versus Two-Officer Cars 219
Staffing Patrol Beats 220
Styles of Patrol 220 Individual Styles 220
Supervisors Styles 221
Organizational Styles 221
Patrol Supervision: The Role of the Sergeant 222
The Communications Center 223 The Nerve Center of Policing 223
911 Systems 223
Processing Calls for Service 224
OperatorCitizen Interactions 226
The Systematic Study of Police Patrol 226 Standards for Systematic Social Observation 226
The Call Service Workload 228 The Volume of Calls 228
Types of Calls 228
Aspects of Patrol Work 230 Response Time 230
Officer Use of Patrol Time 231
Evading Duty 232
High-Speed Pursuits 232
The Effectiveness of Patrol 233 Initial Experiments 233
The Kansas City Preventive Patrol Experiment 234
Findings and Implications of the Kansas City Experiment 235
The Newark Foot Patrol Experiment 236
New Questions, New Approaches 237
Improving Traditional Patrol 237
Differential Response to Calls 237
Telephone Reporting Units 238
311 Nonemergency Numbers 238
Non-English 911 Call Services 239
Reverse 911 239
Computers and Video Cameras in Patrol Cars 239
Police Aides or Cadets 240
Directed Patrol and Hot Spots 241
Customer Feedback 242
Beyond Traditional Patrol 242
CASE STUDY: The Philadelphia Foot Patrol Experiment by Jerry Ratcliffe et al. 242
Summary 244
Key Terms 245
For Discussion 245
Internet Exercises 245
C H A P T E R 8 Peacekeeping and Order Maintenance 250
The Police Role 251
Calling the Police 252
Public Expectations 252
Police Response 252
Traffic Enforcement 253
Drunk-Driving Crackdowns 255
Policing Domestic Disputes 256
Defining Our Terms 256
The Prevalence of Domestic Violence 257
Calling the Police 257
P A R T III Police Work 211
x Contents
Police Response to Domestic Disturbances 258 Factors Influencing the Arrest Decision 259
A Revolution in Policy: Mandatory Arrest 260
The Impact of Arrest on Domestic Violence 260
Impact of Mandatory Arrest Laws and Policies 262
Other Laws and Policies 262
The Future of Domestic Violence Policy 263
Policing Prostitution 263
Policing the Homeless 266
Policing the Mentally III 267 Police Response to the Mentally III 268
Old Problems/New Programs 269
Policing People with HIV 271
Policing Juveniles 272 Controversy over the Police Role 273
Specialized Juvenile Units 273
On-the-Street Encounters 274
The Issue of Race Discrimination 275
Crime Prevention Programs 275
CASE STUDY: Responding to Chronically Inebriated Individuals in Seattle, Washington 276
Summary 276
Key Terms 277
For Discussion 277
Internet Exercises 277
C H A P T E R 9 The Police and Crime 282
The Police and Crime 283 Crime Control Strategies 283
Crime Control Assumptions 284
Measuring Effectiveness 285
Preventing Crime 285
Apprehending Criminals 286 Citizen Reporting of Crime 286
Reporting and Unfounding Crimes 288
Criminal Investigation 289 Myths about Detective Work 289
The Organization of Detective Work 290
The Investigation Process 291
The Preliminary Investigation 291
Arrest Discretion 291
Follow-Up Investigations 291
The Reality of Detective Work 292
Case Screening 292
Measuring the Effectiveness of Criminal Investigation 293
The Clearance Rate 293
Defining an Arrest 294
Success and Failure in Solving Crimes 295
Case Structural Factors 295
Organizational Factors 296
Environmental Factors 297
Officer Productivity 297
The Problem of Case Attrition 298
The Use of Eyewitness Identification, Criminalistics, and DNA in Investigations 298
Eyewitness Identification 298
Criminalistics 299
DNA 299
Improving Criminal Investigations 300
Special Investigative Techniques 301 Undercover Police Work 301
Informants 302
Policing Drugs 303 Drug Enforcement Strategies 303
Minorities and the War on Drugs 304
The Special Case of Marijuana 305
Demand Reduction: The D.A.R.E. Program 306
Policing Gangs and Gang-Related Crime 306 Gang Suppression 307
Gang Prevention: The G.R.E.A.T. Program 308
Policing Career Criminals 308
Policing Guns and Gun Crimes 309 Gun Suppression 309
Policing Hate Crime 311 The Scope and Nature of Hate Crime 311
The Police Response to Hate Crime 312
Contents xi
Policing and Terrorism 313 The Scope and Nature of Terrorism 313
Domestic Terrorism 313
Foreign Terrorism 314
Responding to Terrorism 314
CASE STUDY: Untested Evidence in Law Enforcement Agencies 316
Summary 318
Key Terms 318
For Discussion 318
Internet Exercises 318
C H A P T E R 10 Advances in Police Strategy 324
Impetus for Change in Policing 325
The Roots of Community Policing: The Broken Windows Hypothesis 326 Types of Disorder 327
Characteristics of Community Policing 327 Community Partnerships 329
The Effectiveness of Community Partnerships 332
Organizational Change 333
Evidence of Organizational Change 335
Problem Solving 336
Pulling It All Together: Implementing Community Policing at the Departmental Level 337 Chicago Alternative Policing Strategy (CAPS)
Program 337
Community Policing: Problems and Prospects 342 A Legitimate Police Role? 342
A Political Police? 342
Decentralization and Accountability 343
Impact on Poor and Minority Communities 344
Conflicting Community Interests 344
But Does Community Policing Work? 344
The Roots of Problem-Oriented Policing 345
The Problem-Solving Process 347
Scanning 348
Analysis 349
Response 349
Assessment 349
Effectiveness of Problem-Oriented Policing 349
Problem-Oriented Policing in Newport News 349
Problem-Oriented Policing in San Diego 351
The Boston Gun Project: Operation Cease Fire 351
The Future of Problem-Oriented Policing 352
Characteristics of Zero-Tolerance Policing 353
The Effectiveness of Zero-Tolerance Policing 355
Zero-Tolerance Policing in New York City 355
Operation Restoration 357
Potential Problems with Zero-Tolerance Policing 357
But Does Zero Tolerance Policing Work? 359
CASE STUDY: Using Social Media as a Virtual Form of Neighborhood Watch in Sacramento, California 360
Summary 360
Key Terms 361
For Discussion 361
Internet Exercises 361
C H A P T E R 11 Police Discretion 368
Discretion in Police Work 369 A Definition of Discretion 370 New Perspectives on Police Discretion 370
A Short History of the Study of Police Discretion 370
A Richer Understanding of PoliceCitizen Encounters 371
Potential Abuse of Discretion 372
Positive Uses of Discretion 373
Decision Points and Decision Makers 374 Patrol Officers Decisions 374
P A R T IV Issues in Policing 367
xii Contents
Detectives Decisions 375
Police Managers Decisions 375
Underlying Sources of Police Discretion 375 The Nature of the Criminal Law 375
Conflicting Public Expectations 376
Social and Medical Issues 377
The Work Environment of Policing 377
Limited Police Resources 378
Factors Limiting Patrol Officer Discretion 379 Legal Factors 379
Administrative Factors 379
Organizational Culture Factors 380
Factors Influencing Discretionary Arrest Decisions 380 Situational Factors 380
Organizational Factors 384
Social and Political Factors 385
The Control of Discretion 385 The Need for Control 385
Abolish Discretion? 386
Enhancing Professional Judgment 387
Informal Bureaucratic Controls 387
Administrative Rulemaking: Controls through Written Policies 388 Examples of Administrative Rulemaking 388
Principles of Administrative Rulemaking 390
Contributions of Written Rules 390
The Impact of Administrative Rulemaking 392
Ensuring Compliance with Rules 392
Codifying Rules: The Standard Operation Procedure Manual 394
Systematic Rulemaking 395
Citizen Oversight and Policymaking 396
The Limits of Administrative Rulemaking 396
CASE STUDY: Broken Windows and Police Discretion 397
Summary 398
Key Terms 398
For Discussion 398
Internet Exercises 399
C H A P T E R 12 Legitimacy and PoliceCommunity Relations 404
From PoliceCommunity Relations to Legitimacy 405 The National Police Crisis, 20142016 405
Legitimacy and Procedural Justice 406
The Many Communities in Police-Community Relations 407 Understanding Race and Ethnicity 408
Official Data on Race and Ethnicity 408
The Major Racial and Ethnic Groups 409
Public Opinion about the Police 411 Factors that Affect Public Opinion about
the Police 411
The Impact of Controversial Incidents 414
Additional Perspectives on the Police in American Society 415 The Police and American Society 415
The Police and Other Occupations 415
The American Police in International Perspective 416
Police Officer Perceptions of Citizens 417
PoliceCitizen Interactions: Sources of PoliceCommunity Relations Problems and Loss of Legitimacy 418 The Level of Neighborhood Police Protection 419
Delay in Responding to 911 Calls 420
Police Use of Deadly Force 420
Unconscious Bias and Police Use of Deadly Force 422
Use of Physical Force 423
Patterns in Officer Use of Force 424
Stops and Frisks 425
Arrests 426
Arrests and the War on Drugs 427
The Complex Interaction of Demeanor, Race, and Arrests 427
David Kennedy on the Racial Divide 428
Unconscious Bias, Stereotyping, and Arrests 429
Verbal Abuse and Racial and Ethnic Slurs 430
Traffic Enforcement and Racial Profiling 430
Contents xiii
Building Legitimacy and Improving Police- Community Relations 436 The Different Dimensions of Trust and Confidence
in the Police 436
Engaging the Community 438
Perspective: The Failure of the PoliceCommunity Relations Unites in the 1960s 439
Ending Police Misconduct 440
Engaging Immigrant Communities 441
Immigration and Cultural Barriers in Policing 442
Language Barriers in Policing 442
A Representative Police Force 443
Citizen Oversight of the Police 444
Assign Officers on the Basis of Race or Ethnicity? 444
Do Citizens Care about the Ethnicity of the Officer? 445
Special Training over Race and Ethnicity 445
Summary 446
Key Terms 446
For Discussion 447
Internet Exercises 447
C H A P T E R 13 Police Corruption 454
A Definition of Police Corruption 455
The Costs of Police Corruption 456
Types of Corruption 458 Gratuities 458
Bribes 458
Theft and Burglary 460
Sexual Misconduct 461
Internal Corruption 463
Corruption and Brutality 463
Levels of Corruption 464 Pervasiveness of Corruption within a Police
Organization 465
Theories of Police Corruption 466 Individual Officer Explanations 466
Social Structural Explanations 466
Neighborhood Explanations 468
The Nature of Police Work 468
The Police Organization 469
The Police Subculture 469
Becoming Corrupt 470 The Moral Careers of Individual Officers 470
Corrupting Organizations 471
Controlling Corruption 471
Internal Corruption Control Strategies 472 The Attitude of the Chief 472
Rules and Regulations 472
Managing Anticorruption Investigations 473
Investigative Tactics 474
Cracking the Blue Curtain 475
Proactive Integrity Tests 475
Effective Supervision 476
Rewarding the Good Officers 476
Personnel Recruitment 476
Field Training 478
External Corruption Control Approaches 479 Special Investigations 479
Criminal Prosecution 479
Mobilizing Public Opinion 482
Altering the External Environment 482
The Limits of Anticorruption Efforts 482
CASE STUDY: Hurricane Katrina and the New Orleans Police Department 483
Summary 483
Key Terms 484
For Discussion 484
Internet Exercises 484
C H A P T E R 14 Accountability of the Police 488
What Do We Mean by Police Accountability? 489 The Dilemmas of Policing in a Democracy 490
A Historical Perspective on Accountability 490
xiv Contents
Accountability for What the Police Do 491 The Traditional Approach to Measuring Police
Effectiveness 491
Alternative Measures and Their Limitations 492
COMPSTAT: A Neighborhood-Focused Approach 494
Accountability for How the Police Do Their Job 494
Internal Mechanisms of Accountability 495 Routine Supervision of Patrol Officers 495
Coaching, Mentoring, Leading, and Helping 498
Organizational Culture and Accountability 498
Command-Level Review of Force Incidents: The Emerging Standard 499
Corrective Action: Informal and Formal 500
Performance Evaluations 500
Internal Affairs/Professional Standards Units 501 The Discipline Process 502
Appropriate Levels of Discipline 503
Openness and Transparency for Disciplinary Actions 504
Standards for Investigating Citizen Complaints 504
Using Discipline Records in Personnel Decisions 505
The Code of Silence 505
Early Intervention Systems 506 Officers with Performance Problems 506
The Nature and Purpose of an EIS 507
Performance Indicators and Thresholds 507
Interventions for Officers 509
The Multiple Goals of an EIS 510
The Effectiveness of an EIS 511
Risk Management and Police Legal Advisors 511
Accreditation for Law Enforcement Agencies 512 The Nature of Accreditation 512
Pros and Cons of Accreditation 513
External Mechanisms of Accountability 513 Guiding the Police through the Political Process 513
The Courts and the Police 514
Federal Pattern or Practice Suits 518
The Collaborative Reform Approach: An Alternative to Litigation 522
Injunctions to Stop Patterns of Police Misconduct 423
Criminal Prosecution of Police Officers 523
Citizen Oversight of the Police 524
Blue-Ribbon Commissions 527
The Digital Revolution and Police Accountability 527
The News Media as a Police Accountability Mechanism 528
Public Interest Groups and Accountability 529
Accountability and Crime Control: A Trade-Off? 530
Conclusion: A Mixed Approach to Police Accountability 531
CASE STUDY: Policing Los Angeles under a Consent Decree: The Dynamics of Change at the LAPD: Executive Summary 532
Summary 533
Key Terms 534
Internet Exercises 534
C H A P T E R 15 The Future of Policing in America 544
Police Technology 545 Major Technology Applications 545 The Use of Technology in the Field 548 The Future of Police Information Technology 552 Technologically Advanced Weapons 553
Crime Analysis 554 Types of Crime Analysis 554
Crime Mapping 555
The Outlook for Police Employment 556
Opportunities in Local, County, and State Law Enforcement 557
Local, County, and State Salaries 558
P A R T V Challenges for a New Century 543
Contents xv
Opportunities in Federal Law Enforcement 558
Federal Salaries 558
The Future of Police Research 559 Does Research Do Any Good? 559
Politics and Research 560
Police PractitionerResearcher Relationships 560
The Future of Federal Support for Research 561
Impact of the War on Terrorism 561 Role Expansion 562
Racial and Ethnic Profiling 562
Personnel Challenges 562
Role Change 563
CASE STUDY: Evaluating the Impact of Officer-Worn Body Cameras in Phoenix, Arizona, Project Focus 564
Summary 565
Key Terms 566
For Discussion 566
Internet Exercises 566
Glossary 569 | Name Index 581 | Subject Index 584
xvi Contents
xvi
Preface
The Police in America: An Introduction provides a comprehensive introduction to the foundations of policing in the United States today. Descriptive and analytical, the text is designed to offer undergraduate students a balanced and up-to-date overview of who the police are and what they do, the problems they face, and the many
Read more
Applied Sciences
Architecture and Design
Biology
Business & Finance
Chemistry
Computer Science
Geography
Geology
Education
Engineering
English
Environmental science
Spanish
Government
History
Human Resource Management
Information Systems
Law
Literature
Mathematics
Nursing
Physics
Political Science
Psychology
Reading
Science
Social Science
Home
Homework Answers
Blog
Archive
Tags
Reviews
Contact
google+twitterfacebook
Copyright © 2021 HomeworkMarket.com
